Better Forests, Better Cities

Endnotes

  1. 1. Nature-based solutions are defined as actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural and modified ecosystems that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits (IUCN n.d.)
  2. 2. Flooding data are from Aqueduct Floods (database), World Resources Institute, https://www.wri.org/applications/aqueduct/floods/..
  3. 3. For more information, see i-Tree Eco, https://www.itreetools.org/tools/i-tree-eco..
  4. 4. See the Natural Areas Conservancy, https://naturalareasnyc.org/..
  5. 5. See WRI (n.d.b).
  6. 6. See the Forests to Faucets initiative, https://cfri.colostate.edu/projects/forests-to-faucets/..
  7. 7. The Green-Gray Assessment (GGA) method of World Resources Institute (WRI) allows stakeholders to value the costs and benefits of integrating green or natural infrastructure into water supply systems to improve performance. It has been applied by WRI in multiple watershed systems in the United States, Mexico, Brazil, and Colombia (see Gray et al. 2019).
  8. 8. See the Forest Carbon Program, https://kingcounty.gov/services/environment/water-and-land/forestry/forest-carbon.aspx..
  9. 9. Read more about the Cities4Forests Forest Footprint tool here: https://cities4forests.com/forest-footprint/..
  10. 10. Read more about the Cities4Forests Partner Forest Program here: https://www.partnerforests.org/..
  11. 11. Nature-based solutions are defined as actions to protect, sustainably manage, and restore natural and modified ecosystems that address societal challenges effectively and adaptively, simultaneously providing human well-being and biodiversity benefits (IUCN n.d.).
  12. 12. These four benefits were chosen because they reflect key issues on the agendas of many cities and can be directly improved by supporting forest health, conservation, and restoration.
  13. 13. For more information about Cities4Forests, see https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/cities4forests..
  14. 14. Note that deforestation and forest loss are distinct. Deforestation implies a conversion from forest to nonforest use, such as when forest is cleared for agriculture. Forest loss could be deforestation, but it could also be followed by regrowth—for example, when a forest regrows after a wildfire (Curtis et al. 2018; FAO 2020). See Pearce (2018) for more information on conflicting forest loss data.
  15. 15. Based on unpublished data by S. Francisco.
  16. 16. These challenges were noted as being on the agendas of many cities based on interviews with cities in the Cities4Forests network as well as multiple conversations with city representatives at various conferences, including the ICLEI World Congress (Montreal, 2018) and the Urban Future Global Conference (Oslo, 2018).
  17. 17. For more information about the Tree Equity Score, see https://treeequityscore.org/..
  18. 18. Most research has examined the effects of planting non-native species and reports data on only 10 years or fewer of the effects on hydrology—and over longer periods of time, initial decreases in water yield tend to become smaller (Filoso et al. 2017). Few studies have been conducted on the effects of afforestation and reforestation in large watersheds, and those that have reported conflicting results (Zhang et al. 2017). Furthermore, hydrological cycles are complex, influenced by a variety of factors including local geology, scale of restoration, local climate, and more (Filoso et al. 2017). More research is needed to understand the effects of afforestation and reforestation in various climates, in highly degraded lands, with various introduced and native forest species, and over multidecadal time scales and various spatial scales (van Dijk and Keenan 2007; Ellison et al. 2017; Jones et al. 2020).
  19. 19. For more information about the Bonn Challenge, see https://www.bonnchallenge.org/..
  20. 20. For more information about Initiative 20x20, see https://initiative20x20.org/..
  21. 21. To learn more about AFR100, see https://afr100.org/..
  22. 22. To learn more about ECCA30, see https://infoflr.org/bonn-challenge/regional-initiatives/ecca30..
  23. 23. For more information about Trillion Trees, see https://trilliontrees.org/..
  24. 24. For more information about MillionTreesNYC, see https://www.milliontreesnyc.org/..
  25. 25. Calculated with a social cost of carbon valued at $129.80/tC in 2011$.
  26. 26. Boreal forests are also extremely important carbon stocks, perhaps storing between 370 and 1,700 GtC, with large portions of this carbon locked in their soil (Bradshaw and Warkentin 2015). In this report, however, we primarily focus on tropical forests because they are currently experiencing greater deforestation pressure related to commodity production. However, we note that boreal forests are also in danger of transitioning from carbon sink to carbon source (Bradshaw and Warkentin 2015). Wildfires and forestry are the key drivers of boreal forest loss (Curtis et al. 2018).
  27. 27. Data in this section are from Climate Watch (database), https://www.climatewatchdata.org..
  28. 28. Estimates vary widely in part due to the uncertainty of how many species are on Earth, ranging from 3 million to 100 million; most recent estimates are around 8 million (May 2010; Mora et al. 2011; IPBES 2019; FAO 2020).
  29. 29. We conducted a scan of published and gray literature as well as city policy documents and webpages to find municipal policies that support forest conservation via sustainable procurement of forest or “deforestation” commodities (soy, beef, palm oil, and so on) or otherwise.
  30. 30. It is estimated that this could be increased to about 5 percent if all available urban land were used with intensive production practices.
  31. 31. Urban croplands were determined using a spatial overlay analysis and were defined as areas that were both part of an urban extent (areas with a population greater than 50,000 people) and under crop cultivation.
  32. 32. This result was developed using “dependence ratios towards pollinators given by a recent review (Klein et al. 2007) and the production value of the most important crops directly used for human food. It measures the part of the gross value of the world food production attributable to insect pollination and can therefore be considered as a conservative assessment of the gross value of the insect pollination service” (Gallai et al. 2009, 816).
  33. 33. Cities with populations greater than 300,000 people.
  34. 34. Note that the wide range in this estimate is due to the fact that global species estimates are uncertain, but all estimates fall well above 50 percent.
  35. 35. Each hot spot has at least 1,500 endemic plant species and has lost at least 70 percent of its original habitat.
  36. 36. Read more about Skopje’s Green Cadastre here: https://www.undp.org/north-macedonia/projects/resilient-skopje-scaling-sustainability-innovation-and-climate-change..
  37. 37. For more information, see i-Tree Eco, https://www.itreetools.org/tools/i-tree-eco..
  38. 38. The Cities4Forests Toolbox is a collection of practical tools from around the world to help cities include forests, trees, and green infrastructure in their decision-making, planning, and investments. The tools cover a range of topics, from valuing trees and forests to maximizing key benefits—such as biodiversity, health, water, and carbon—and planning and managing forest-related projects inside and outside their boundaries. To learn more, see https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/cities4forests/cities4forests-toolbox..
  39. 39. To learn more about Trees for Life: Master Plan for Barcelona’s Trees, see https://ajuntament.barcelona.cat/ecologiaurbana/sites/default/files/Pla-director-arbrat-barcelona-ENG.pdf..
  40. 40. For more information about Vancouver’s Greenest City 2020 Action Plan, see https://vancouver.ca/files/cov/Greenest-city-action-plan.pdf..
  41. 41. To learn more about Sydney’s Turn Down the Heat: Strategy and Action Plan, see https://ghhin.org/wp-content/uploads/Western-Sydney-Turn-Down-the-Heat-Strategy-and-Action-Plan-2018-1.pdf..
  42. 42. For more information about the Natural Areas Conservancy, see https://naturalareasnyc.org/..
  43. 43. See WRI (n.d.b).
  44. 44. For more information on Global Forest Watch, see https://www.globalforestwatch.org/..
  45. 45. For more about Forests to Faucets, see https://cfri.colostate.edu/projects/forests-to-faucets/..
  46. 46. To learn more about the Forest Footprint, see https://forestfootprint.org/..
  47. 47. To learn more about the Seattle Zoo’s El Yunque National Forest partnership, see https://www.zoo.org/tkcp..
  48. 48. For more information about the National Front of Mayors, see https://fnp.org.br/..
  49. 49. To learn more about the Cities4Forests Call to Action on Forests and Climate, see https://www.wri.org/our-work/project/cities4forests/call-action..
  50. 50. For more information about the Chester Zoo, see https://www.chesterzoo.org/news/chester-named-worlds-first-sustainable-palm-oil-city-2/..
  51. 51. To learn more about the Social Innovation Fund, see https://www1.nyc.gov/site/opportunity/portfolio/social-innovation-fund-sif.page..
  52. 52. To learn more about UrbanShift, see https://www.shiftcities.org/..
  53. 53. For more information about Wood at Work, see https://www.woodatwork.ca/..
  54. 54. For more information about the Urban Water Resilience Initiative, see https://www.wri.org/initiatives/urban-water-resilience-africa..
  55. 55. To learn more about the Global Commission on Adaptation, see https://www.wri.org/initiatives/global-commission-adaptation..
  56. 56. To learn more about the Brooklyn Bridge Forest, see https://www.brooklynbridgeforest.com/..
  57. 57. For more information about WRI’s Ross Center for Sustainable Cities, see https://wrirosscities.org/..
  58. 58. To learn more about WRI’s Water Program, see https://www.wri.org/water..
  59. 59. To learn more about WRI’s Forests Program, see https://www.wri.org/forests..
  60. 60. Dr. Kathleen Wolf is a Research Social Scientist in the School of Environmental and Forest Sciences at the University of Washington.
  61. 61. Dr. Dexter Locke is a Research Social Scientist with the U.S. Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Baltimore Field Station.
  62. 62. Elleni Ashebir was formerly the Program Manager for Cities and Urban Mobility at WRI Ross Center for Sustainable Cities, WRI Africa.
  63. 63. Dr. Beatriz Cardenas is the Air Quality Director at WRI Mexico.
  64. 64. Dr. Jessica Seddon is the Global Lead for Air Quality at WRI Ross Center for Sustainable Cities.
  65. 65. Dr. Theodore Eisenman is an Assistant Professor of Landscape Architecture at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst.
  66. 66. Dr. Viniece Jennings is an Assistant Professor at Agnes Scott College and a former Research Scientist with the U.S. Forest Service.
  67. 67. Dr. Nick Hewitt is a Distinguished Professor at the Lancaster Environment Centre at Lancaster University.
  68. 68. Dr. David Rojas-Rueda is an Assistant Professor at Colorado State University and a Researcher at the Barcelona Institute for Global Health.
  69. 69. Suzanne Ozment is a Senior Associate for Natural Infrastructure in WRI’s Water Program.
  70. 70. Todd Gartner is the Director of Cities4Forests and Natural Infrastructure in WRI’s Water Program.
  71. 71. Paige Langer is an Associate in WRI’s Forests Program.
  72. 72. Sara Walker is the Director of Corporate Water Engagement in WRI’s Water Program.
  73. 73. Aarin Gross is a Senior Program Manager for Conservation Policy & Incentives at Conservation International.
  74. 74. Robin Abell is the Freshwater Lead for the Global Strategy Group in the Moore Center for Science at Conservation International.
  75. 75. Frances Seymour is a Senior Fellow in WRI’s Forests Program.
  76. 76. David Gibbs is a Geographic Information System Research Associate for Global Forest Watch in WRI’s Forests Program.
  77. 77. Nancy Harris is the Research Director for Global Forest Watch in WRI’s Forests Program.
  78. 78. Alexander Rudee was formerly the Manager of U.S. Natural Climate Solutions in WRI’s Climate Program and is now the Senior Program Manager for Nature-based Solutions at Amazon.
  79. 79. David Nowak is a Senior Scientist and i-Tree Team Leader with the U.S. Forest Service.
  80. 80. Robin Chazdon is the Founder and Director of Forestoration International and Professor Emerita with the Department of Ecology and Evolution at the University of Connecticut.
  81. 81. Patricia Balvanera is a Professor at the Institute for Ecosystem and Sustainability Research at the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México.
  82. 82. To learn more about the Cities4Forests Toolkit, see https://cities4forests.com/toolbox/..
  83. 83. Terra Virsilas is an Associate for Urban Development at WRI’s Ross Center for Sustainable Cities.
  84. 84. Lisa Beyer is the Urban Water Infrastructure Manager, Natural Infrastructure, WRI.
  85. 85. James Anderson is an Associate II for Cities4Forests at WRI.
  86. 86. Lizzie Marsters is the Environmental Finance Manager, Natural Infrastructure, WRI.
  87. 87. Ayushi Trivedi is a Research Associate for Gender and Social Equity at WRI’s Center for Equitable Development.
  88. 88. Natalie Elwell is a Senior Gender Adviser at WRI’s Center for Equitable Development.
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